Chapter2SpeechSounds2.1SpeechproductionandperceptionPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:1.Articulatoryphonetics–thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds2.Acousticphonetics–thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech3.Auditoryphonetics–thestudyofperceptionofspeechsoundsMostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.2.2SpeechorgansSpeechorgansarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.Thespeechorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts:theinitiatoroftheairstream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.2.3Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscription2.3.1SegmentsanddivergencesAstherearemoresoundsinEnglishthanitsletters,eachlettermustrepresentmorethanonesound.2.3.2PhonetictranscriptionInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA):thesystemofsymbolsforrepresentingthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguageaccordingtotheprinciplesoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.Thesymbolsconsistsoflettersanddiacritics.SomelettersaretakenfromtheRomanalphabet,somearespecialsymbols.2.4Consonants2.4.1ConsonantsandvowelsAconsonantisproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacestodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.Avowelisproducedwithoutobstructionsonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.2.4.2ConsonantsThecategoriesofconsonantareestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.Themostimportantofthesefactorsare:1.theactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract(mannerofarticulation);2.whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionoftheair(placeofarticulation).2.4.3Mannersofarticulation1.Stop/plosive:Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbystoppingtheairstreamfromthelungsandthensuddenlyreleasingit.InEnglish,[]arestopsand[]arenasalstops.2.Fricative:Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbyallowingtheairstreamfromthelungstoescapewithfriction.Thisiscausedbybringingthetwoarticulators,e.g.theupperteethandthelowerlip,closetogetherbutnotclosesenoughtostoptheairstreamscompletely.InEnglish,[]arefricatives.3.(Median)approximant:Anarticulationinwhichonearticulatorisclosetoanother,butwithoutthevocaltractbeingnarrowedtosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamisproduced.InEnglishthisclassofsoundsincludes[].4.Lateral(approximant):Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbypartiallyblockingtheairstreamfromthelungs,usuallybythetongue,butlettingitescapeatoneorbothsidesoftheblockage.[]istheonlylateralinEnglish.Otherconsonantalarticulationsincludetrill,taporflap,andaffricate.2.4.4Placesofarticulation1.Bilabial:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetwolips.2.Labiodental:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth.3.Dental:Aspeechsoundwhichismadebythetonguetiporbladeandtheupperfrontteeth.4.Alveolar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetiporbladeandthealveolarridge.5.Postalveolar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetipandthebackofthealveolarridge.6.Retroflex:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetiporbladecurledbacksothattheundersideofthetonguetiporbladeformsastricturewiththebackofthealveolarridgeorthehardpalate.7.Palatal:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththefrontofthetongueandthehardpalate.8.Velar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackofthetongueandthesoftpalate.9.Uvular:Aspeechsoundwh...